STRATEGIKON of Athens - "The lions of Trebizond"

In the region of the ancient city-state of Trapezus was founded in 1204 the third great Byzantine empire, the empire of Trebizond (the other two were those of Nikaia and Hepeiros). The foundation of this empire followed the fall of Constantinople to the Latins and it was established by Alexios Komnenos with the aid of Georgian troops. This empire was created by the "Komnenoi" dynasty, that was opposite to the House of "Angeloi" and their capital city, Constantinople. So, it was created by the centrifugal tendencies from the declining Constantinople during the Angeloi's rule and it wasn't consequent of the national resistance, that was organised against the Latins after 1204.

The armed forces of this empire were small. So, for survival, the empire was relied upon the excellent geographical location and the diplomatic manoeuvres of the "Great Komnenoi" (as the emperors of Trebizond were named, while this name reminds their imperial origin and their legal rights to the throne of Constantinople) mainly via marriages with the neighbouring kings, princes and amirs.

The policies we mentioned before kept the Ottomans away from the empire up to the second half of the 15th century. The first Ottoman assault was repulsed in 1442, the second was bought off with a large amount of money in 1456, but in 1461 after a siege that lasted 21 days and a lot of intense battles around and on the walls of Trebizond the last emperor surrendered to 60,000 cavalrymen and 80,000 Ottoman infantrymen under the leadership of Moameth the Second the Conqueror.

The emblem of the empire of the Great Komnenoi was a red flag with a gold one-headed eagle that was facing Constantinople. The official title of the Great Komnenoi was “Loyal king and emperor of all East, Hiberia and Perateia”. The term “all East” declares the rule of Trebizond on the Eastern (Asiatic) Byzantine territories. The term “Hiberia” shows the traditional bond between the imperial Houses of Georgia and Trebizond. The term “and Perateia”, finally, declares the rule of Trebizond on territories in the Crimean peninsula. The last term was maintaned despite the powerful hostile presence of the Mongols and the Genoese.

The emperors of Trebizond were the following:

Alexios the First the Great Komnenos(founder) 1204-1222

Andronikos the First the Gidon or Gidas 1222-1235

Hioannes the First the Axiouchos 1235-1241

Manouel the First the Great Komnenos 1241-1263

Andronikos the Second 1263-1266

Georgios the First 1266-1280

Hioannes the Second 1280-1298

Alexios the Second the Great Komnenos 1298-1330

Andronikos the Third 1330-1332

Manouel the Second 1332

Vasileios the First 1332-1340

Eirene Palaiologina 1340-1341

Anna Komnene 1341-1342

Hioannes the Third the Komnenos 1342-1344

Michael the First 1344-1349

ALEXIOS THE THIRD THE GREAT KOMNENOS 1349-1390

Manouel the Third the Komnenos 1390-1417

Alexios the Fourth the Komnenos 1417-1446

Hioannes the Fourth the Kalohioannes 1446-1458

David the First the Komnenos (the last emperor) 1458-1461

The excellent geographical location of this empire ensured economic growth through trade with India and the cities around the Red Sea. Thus, Trebizond became "trade of all the world" (Vessarion) and was established as "top and eye of all Asia" (Lawkeeper Eugenikos).

The objective of protection of the economic potential of Trebizond (via the free communication of Trebizond-Interior Asia-Southern Russia) and the Great Komnenoi's territories caused conflicts against the Seljuq Turks, the Turkomans of Asia Minor (mainly the amirs of Kastamone and Amis) and the Genoese. The Mongolian sovereignty in the middle of the 13th century saved Trebizond from the Seljuq danger.

Michael the Eighth the Palaiologos is the person who substantially creates the treaties for alliance between Constantinople and Trebizond.

The civil war in the middle of the 14th century in Trebizond between the leading families of Amytzarantoi and the faithful to Constantinople Scholarioi and the slaughter of the first agitated the empire. In any case, after this conflict Constantinople remained for Trebizond the metropolis for the Nation and the Church.

In 1453 the pontic people bemoaned bitter the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans. This bereavement for Romania and Constantinople will remain alive in communal songs, the "Lamentations", that pass inalterable in the centuries. The pontic verses "Romania even if it died thrives and carries on" suckled with resurrectional hope lots of humiliated generations of "Romiosyne" and Hellenism.

THE EMPIRE'S ORGANISATION

The administrative organisation of the empire of Trebizond was based on Byzantine models(subdivision in 7 sectors) but there were also georgian effects(that are proved by the centrifugal tendencies of the important pontic families to the central throne). Each one from these sectors had the local soldiers.

The Graeco-Lazoi lords of the borders guarded the frontier with their own forces voluntary at first and afterwards for their power's recognition by the throne.

However, the army had intense Eastern effects, since most of the soldiers were Tzannoi.

The Mongols and the White Sheep Turkomans influenced the daily life of the palace and the diplomatic developments but didn't create new particular forms in the social organisation.

This special reality of Trebizond influenced a lot the Ottoman economy.

Finally, the Hecclesiastical Metropolis of "Trebizond and all Lazike" was based on Constantinopolitan models.

THE ARMED FORCES

The army of Trebizond was small. This was reasonable, because the population of the empire was 250,000 and the inhabitants of the city of Trebizond were 4,000 in 1438. In the 13th century the empire could offer (obligatory because of a treaty) to the Seljuqs 200 cavalrymen-lancers, while most of the armies in the 14th century were numbered only in hudreds. In 1355 the loss of 50-400 men in a battle against the Turks was considered as a major disaster. In another battle near Marmara in 1370 Alexios the Third the Great Komnenos was accompanied only by 100 cavalrymen. In 1380 the same emperor split his army in two parts: the first part had 600 infantrymen and the second the cavalry and the rest of the infantry. The largest army of the empire was recorded in 1366 and had 2,000 cavalrymen and infantrymen. But, whatever the empire didn't have in quantity had in quality and impetus: a 1350's Moslem report confirms that the soldiers of Trebizond were "warlike men and fearless, although few and ill-equipped, heroic like terrible lions, who never let their prey escape".

The army of Trebizond had also supplements from Turks and Georgian allies that were related to the imperial family through marriages. An alliance against the Ottomans included (outside of the forces of Trebizond) 5,000 White Sheep Turkomans, some Georgian rulers with 17,000 men, the amir of Kilikia with 1-2,000 men, some Kirkassians and Alans, some other amirs, and the amir of Sinope and Kastamone with 400 guns, 2,000 artillerists and 10,000 men with traditional Turkish equipment.

It appears also that in the middle of the 15th century the forces of Trebizond had their own artillery units.

Now, regarding the equipment of the army of Trebizond, the heavy cavalry up to 1360 used the lance. Since then the heavy cavalry used as main weapon the bow (as the light cavalry). Now, the infantry: there was a small force of spearmen but most of the infantrymen were archers, psiloi with bows and peltasts. Thus, we can say that "the army of Trebizond used bows and swords like the Turkish forces, while Trebizond's cavalry was used like the Turkish" (Klavikos, 1404).

Finally, because the sea played a very important role, the empire maintained a permanent naval force (that is last mentioned in 1437) of 2-3 large warships, that were able to transport 300-600 men (this shows the small size of the army) and could build smaller ships in extraordinary circumstances (in 1355 were recorded 1 large warship and 11 ploiaria, in 1372 40 xylaria and in 1379 2 large warships and 2 boats). In 1402 Tamerlaine asked from Manouel 20 galleys for use against the Ottomans (that obvious wasn't possible to receive). It appears that Trebizond assisted Tamerlaine in another battle. Finally, the Venetians and the Genoese played an active role in the naval affairs of the empire and thus they frequently had conflicts against Trebizond.

THE GOLDEN YEARS

The golden age of Trebizond is connected with Alexios the Third, who reestablished piece after a decennial civil war, defeated the Turkomans, built monasteries and Sacred Houses and led the empire to unprecedented blossoming.

THE GREAT KOMNENOI AND THE TURKS, THE GENOESE AND THE VENETIANS

The only direct source is the small chronicle that "protosevastos" and "protonotarios" Panaretos of Trebizond wrote, who lived during the age of Alexios the Fourth.

Up to the battle of Koezentagk (1243) and the distruction of the Seljuqs by the Mongols the emperors of Trebizond face with relative success the threat of the Seljuq forces. In 1254/8 Manouel captures Sinope, that remains under Trapezuntine rule til 1265/6.

The Turkomans become a serious threat circa 1280. After a little while exploiting civil conflicts they devastate the rich area of Halybia round Kerasous and after a little while they capture Kerasous. Alexios the Second defeats them, captures their leader Koustaganes and reorganizes the empire's defence.

Afterwards, the Genoese demand not to pay up taxes with threat to leave from the empire. Alexios the Second responds with wishes for a safe journey but says that they can leave after they pay up the taxes! When the Genoese prepare to leave without paying the taxes, Alexios the Second sends Georgian troops in order to arrest them. Then, the Genoese put on fire the central part of the city but the fire burns their merchandices. In a little while war bursts out between Genoa and Trebizond. Alexios the Second with the amir of Sinope attacks to the Genoese installations in Hersona but the Genoese superiority at sea forces him to make piece in 1314 and in 1316 but in 1319 for distraction he gives privileges to the Venetians.

In 1332 the Turkish amir Pariames attacks directly to Trebizond but the defence holds up.

In 1340 the Turks of Amis exploiting civil conflicts make 2 direct attacks to Trebizond. The second one is successful. The city was burned and many non-combatants died. Exploiting civil conflicts the Turks capture the territories of Hagion Andrea and Oinaion in 1346 and in 1347 they fail to capture Trebizond.

The Genoese treat badly the population of Hersona and the Trapezuntines react by besieging the Genoese part of the city and by killing every Genoese they could find. In 1348 the Genoese counterattack, capture Kerasous and destroy the small Trapezuntine fleet, that the emperor sent to face them. The Trapezuntines react by destroying again the Genoese part of the city. The Genoese forces that arrive force the emperor Manouel to sign a treaty and to give them back their privileges, while for 7 months the Trapezuntines face a plague.

In 1349 Alexios the Third reigns in the throne of Trebizond. In 1351 he marries Theodora Kantakouzene, relative of the Byzantine emperor of Constantinople. Alexios the Third with a series of small campaigns reestablishes piece through out the empire. When the Venetians attack the Genoese fleet inside the harbour of the city of Trebizond, Alexios the Third keeps them off by giving them privileges. Also, he renews the alliances with the Georgians and the neighbouring Turkish amirs by marriages and tributes to the growth of trade, culture and arts. When Tamerlaine captures georgian territories, Alexios the Third is at his last days.

In 1390 Manouel, the new emperor, becomes tax tributary to the Mongols.

In 1396 the Venetian privileges are renewed, since the Genoese stop every economic transaction with the empire.

In 1417 the Genoese demand economic compensation for the destruction of their installations. Emperor Alexios the Fourth pays them up.

After the rise to imperial power of Hioannes the Fourth Artaviles' Turkomans attack. The forces of Trebizond under the leadership of "pansevastos" Alexander face the Turkomans in the area of Kordyle expecting to make a combined counterattack by land and by sea. However, the surf prevents the fleet and thus the land forces face the enemy alone and lose, while Alexander dies during the battle. The Turkomans reach Trebizond, where fire has burst out and which the inhabitants leave with panic. With extreme effort the emperor and the remaining 50 men repulse the Turkomans. When the inhabitants return, the emperor calls the lords "womanlies, timids and traitors of the country".

If the confrontation of the irregular Turkomans was problematic, the reaction against the Ottomans was impossible.

In 1442 the surf prevents the Ottoman fleet from capturing Trebizond. The renewal of Mourat's treaty and the payment of a large amount of money doesn't prevent Moameth the Second from ordering Hityres to capture the facing plague Trebizond in 1456. The emperor keeps him off by paying a lot of money and by giving him a lot of people for slaves.

Hioannes the Fourth and his brother David mobilize: they unite the various Turkisk amirs and the White Sheep Turkomans and they send ambassadors to the Pope Pios the Second, to the King of France and to the Duke of Burgundy.

In the face of the possibility of activation of such an alliance Moameth the Second strikes like a thunder: in 1461 he moves against the various Turkish amirates and Trebizond with 60,000 cavalrymen, 80,000 infantrymen and 300 warships. After the subdue of the various Turkish amirates he sends the fleet to Trebizond and directs the army to the White Sheep Turkomans, who capitulate.

David, emperor now, bears without aid a hard siege of 21 days. "Protovestiarios" Georgios Amoiroutzes begins to discuss for the conditions of capitulation. The conqueror Sultan has according to the treaty the obligation to respect the life, the honor and the fortune of the surrendered Trapezuntines, to allow everyone, who wishes to, to leave the conquered homeland and to give David and his family all the income from the territory of Serrai as long as he lives.

David leaves with his family for the area of Strymon. All the important families (and especially Amoiroutzes' that Moameth honours) and a lot of inhabitants are transported to Constantinople. Trebizond is destroyed and many inhabitants are sold as slaves. Finally, 1,500 young Trapezuntine captives join by force the janissary corps and others the sipahis corps.

In 1463 David meets in Adrianople, where he and his family has been transported by sultanic order, the deposed Despot of Peloponnesos, Demetrios Palaiologos. This is considered by the Sultan as conspiracy and thus David, his nephew and 7 out of his 8 sons are executed.

After the implementation Moameth prohibits the burial of the corpses. However, burries them alone-as another Antigone- David's wife Eirene Palaiologina, who dies soon after from grief...

EPILOGUE

In all of this empire's history Trebizond remained faithful to the spirit of the true Byzantine empire.

Trebizond's empire is undeniable an achievement of the far away mikrasiatic Hellenism, that lived and prospered despite the difficulty of those times for over two and a half centuries in the frames of an autonomous state. It managed to become ring and bridge between Europe and Asia without alteration of intellectual identity, distruction of cultural personality and with maintenance of the true Byzantine tradition. When in 1461 the Ottoman troops of Moameth the Second the Conqueror entered victorious into Trebizond, then end only then stopped the history of the free mikrasiatic Hellenism. This conquest meant with the end of the empire of the Great Komnenoi the closure of the circle of battles for 416 years between the Hellenism and the Turkish hurricane of the Seljuqs, the Turkomans and the Ottomans. Asia Minor now belonged to the Turks...

Europe, The European Catholic West with the fall of Trebizond was losing the last base in Asia. Euxeinos Pontos now becomes a close Moslem lake, the inhabitants will live for 5 centuries neglected in the margin of history, while the Hellenism, faithful to the traditions will keep alive the lesson that the last emperor David left behind by dying as a martyr. Secretly, the Hellenism will pass on from generation to generation the Orthodoxy and the priceless treasure of the language that was used to hymn the achievements of the akrites and, when the dark times came, to cry out the tragedy of the Nation.

Remnants of the Trapezuntine empire the Greek-speaking Christians and Krypto-Christians of Pontos will live for centuries the Turkish conquest (at least those who didn't go to Tyflis, Russia and the distant Christianic West) until the time when poor, weak, exiled from the homelands they' ll find in the first quarter of the 20th century the Greek lands and the free Orthodoxy. Behind, in Trebizond, they left the narrated in the Metropolis of Hagia Sophia emperors to guard, silent and unworshiped, the memory of the last empire of the medieval mikrasiatic Hellenism...

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Barker Phil-Scott Richard Bodley, DBM, Army Lists, Book 4: 1071 AD TO 1500 AD, WRG, 2nd edition, March 1999, p. 34.

2. Bryar A., The Littoral of the Empire of Trebizond in two fourteenth century Portolano maps, File of Pontos, XXIV(1961), pp. 97-127.

5. Heath Ian, Armies of the Middle Ages, volume 2, WRG, pp. 23-25 and pp. 131-133.

6. Heath Ian-McBride Angus(translation into the Greek language by Papathanases Helias), The last Byzantine armies(1118-1461 AD), "Combatants" series, 3, Free Thinking Publishing House, Athens, 1996.

7. History of the Hellenic Nation, Book IX, Byzantine Hellenism(Middle Byzantine and Late Byzantine years), Athenian Publishing House, Athens, 1970, pp. 325-335.

8. Lampsides Od., How did Trebizond fall, File of Pontos, XVII(1952), pp. 15-54.

9. Lampsides Od., Opinions about the state of the Great Komnenoi, File of Pontos, XXIV(1961), pp. 14-34.

10. Lymperopoulos Vasileios Ch., The Byzantine Pontos, The Empire of Trebizond(1204-1461), Creation Publishing House, Athens.

12. Nikoloudes Nikolaos, The slow death of Byzantium and the problem of the foreign assistance, Military History, issue 33, pp. 26-35, Athens.

13. Panagiotopoulos Chrestos-Anagnostakes Helias, The Greek-Turkisk conflict in Asia Minor during the Middle Ages(1040-1461), Military History, issue 42, pp. 40-49, Athens.

14. Skalieres G.K., The Empire of Trebizond, Free Thinking Publishing House,editio altera, Athens, 1995.

15. Vakalopoulos Apostolos E., Origins of the Greek Nation:the Byzantine period, 1204-1461, 1970.

16. Vasiliev A.E., The foundation of the Empire of Trebizond, Speculum, XI(1936), pp. 3-37.

17. Vasiliev A.E., The Empire of Trebizond in history and literature, Byzantion, XV(1940-1941), pp. 316-377.

"The lions of Trebizond"

PRAEFATIO

THE ARMED FORCES

THE GOLDEN YEARS

THE GREAT KOMNENOI AND THE TURKS, THE GENOESE AND THE VENETIANS

EPILOGUE

BIBLIOGRAPHY